Abstract: Apoptosis is a widespread phenomenon that occurs in the brain in both physiological and pathological conditions. Dead cells must be quickly removed to avoid the further toxic e?ects they exert in the parenchyma, a process executed by microglia, the brain professional phagocytes. Although phagocytosis is critical to maintain tissue homeostasis, it has long been either overlooked or indirectly assessed based on microglial morphology, expression of classical activation markers, or engulfment of artifcial phagocytic targets in vitro. Nevertheless, these indirect methods present several limitations and, thus, direct observation and quantifcation of microglial phagocytosis is still necessary to fully grasp its relevance in the diseased brain. To overcome these caveats and obtain a comprehensive, quantitative picture of microglial phagocytosis we have developed a novel set of parameters. Tese parameters have allowed us to identify the di?erent strategies utilized by microglia to cope with apoptotic challenges induced by excitotoxicity or in?ammation. In contrast, we discovered that in mouse and human epilepsy microglia failed to fnd and engulf apoptotic cells, resulting in accumulation of debris and in?ammation. Herein, we advocate that the efciency of microglial phagocytosis should be routinely tested in neurodegenerative and neurological disorders, in order to determine the extent to which it contributes to apoptosis and in?ammation found in these conditions. Finally, our fndings point towards enhancing microglial phagocytosis as a novel therapeutic strategy to control tissue damage and in?ammation, and accelerate recovery in brain diseases.

Key words: microglia, phagocytosis, apoptosis, impairment, epilepsy, brain diseases, neurodegeneration, in?ammation, neuroin?ammation